Post-ischemic ubiquitination at the postsynaptic density reversibly influences the activity of ischemia-relevant kinases.

Ubiquitin modifications alter protein function and stability, thereby regulating cell homeostasis and viability, particularly under stress. Ischemic stroke induces protein ubiquitination at the ischemic periphery, wherein cells remain viable, however the identity of ubiquitinated proteins is unknown. Here, we employed a proteomics approach to identify these proteins in mice undergoing ischemic stroke. The data are available in a searchable web interface ( https://hochrainerlab.shinyapps.io/StrokeUbiOmics/ ). We detected increased ubiquitination of 198 proteins, many of which localize to the postsynaptic density (PSD) of glutamatergic neurons. Among these were proteins essential for maintaining PSD architecture, such as PSD95, as well as NMDA and AMPA receptor subunits. The largest enzymatic group at the PSD with elevated post-ischemic ubiquitination were kinases, such as CaMKII, PKC, Cdk5, and Pyk2, whose aberrant activities are well-known to contribute to post-ischemic neuronal death. Concurrent phospho-proteomics revealed altered PSD-associated phosphorylation patterns, indicative of modified kinase activities following stroke. PSD-located CaMKII, PKC, and Cdk5 activities were decreased while Pyk2 activity was increased after stroke. Removal of ubiquitin restored kinase activities to pre-stroke levels, identifying ubiquitination as the responsible molecular mechanism for post-ischemic kinase regulation. These findings unveil a previously unrecognized role of ubiquitination in the regulation of essential kinases involved in ischemic injury.

Safety and efficacy of factor XIa inhibition with milvexian for secondary stroke prevention (AXIOMATIC-SSP): a phase 2, international, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, dose-finding trial.

BACKGROUND: People with factor XI deficiency have lower rates of ischaemic stroke than the general population and infrequent spontaneous bleeding, suggesting that factor XI has a more important role in thrombosis than in haemostasis. Milvexian, an oral small-molecule inhibitor of activated factor XI, added to standard antiplatelet therapy, might reduce the risk of non-cardioembolic ischaemic stroke without increasing the risk of bleeding. We aimed to estimate the dose-response of milvexian for recurrent ischaemic cerebral events and major bleeding in patients with recent ischaemic stroke or transient ischaemic attack (TIA). METHODS: AXIOMATIC-SSP was a phase 2, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, dose-finding trial done at 367 hospitals in 27 countries. Eligible participants aged 40 years or older, with acute (<48 h) ischaemic stroke or high-risk TIA, were randomly assigned by a web-based interactive response system in a 1:1:1:1:1:2 ratio to receive one of five doses of milvexian (25 mg once daily, 25 mg twice daily, 50 mg twice daily, 100 mg twice daily, or 200 mg twice daily) or matching placebo twice daily for 90 days. All participants received clopidogrel 75 mg daily for the first 21 days and aspirin 100 mg daily for the first 90 days. Investigators, site staff, and participants were masked to treatment assignment. The primary efficacy endpoint was the composite of ischaemic stroke or incident covert brain infarct on MRI at 90 days, assessed in all participants allocated to treatment who completed a follow-up MRI brain scan, and the primary analysis assessed the dose-response relationship with Multiple Comparison Procedure-Modelling (MCP-MOD). The main safety outcome was major bleeding at 90 days, assessed in all participants who received at least one dose of the study drug. This trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT03766581) and the EU Clinical Trials Register (2017-005029-19). FINDINGS: Between Jan 27, 2019, and Dec 24, 2021, 2366 participants were randomly allocated to placebo (n=691); milvexian 25 mg once daily (n=328); or twice-daily doses of milvexian 25 mg (n=318), 50 mg (n=328), 100 mg (n=310), or 200 mg (n=351). The median age of participants was 71 (IQR 62-77) years and 859 (36%) were female. At 90 days, the estimates of the percentage of participants with either symptomatic ischaemic stroke or covert brain infarcts were 16·8 (90·2% CI 14·5-19·1) for placebo, 16·7 (14·8-18·6) for 25 mg milvexian once daily, 16·6 (14·8-18·3) for 25 mg twice daily, 15·6 (13·9-17·5) for 50 mg twice daily, 15·4 (13·4-17·6) for 100 mg twice daily, and 15·3 (12·8-19·7) for 200 mg twice daily. No significant dose-response was observed among the five milvexian doses for the primary composite efficacy outcome. Model-based estimates of the relative risk with milvexian compared with placebo were 0·99 (90·2% CI 0·91-1·05) for 25 mg once daily, 0·99 (0·87-1·11) for 25 mg twice daily, 0·93 (0·78-1·11) for 50 mg twice daily, 0·92 (0·75-1·13) for 100 mg twice daily, and 0·91 (0·72-1·26) for 200 mg twice daily. No apparent dose-response was observed for major bleeding (four [1%] of 682 participants with placebo, two [1%] of 325 with milvexian 25 mg once daily, two [1%] of 313 with 25 mg twice daily, five [2%] of 325 with 50 mg twice daily, five [2%] of 306 with 100 mg twice daily, and five [1%] of 344 with 200 mg twice daily). Five treatment-emergent deaths occurred, four of which were considered unrelated to the study drug by the investigator. INTERPRETATION: Factor XIa inhibition with milvexian, added to dual antiplatelet therapy, did not substantially reduce the composite outcome of symptomatic ischaemic stroke or covert brain infarction and did not meaningfully increase the risk of major bleeding. Findings from our study have informed the design of a phase 3 trial of milvexian for the prevention of ischaemic stroke in patients with acute ischaemic stroke or TIA. FUNDING: Bristol Myers Squibb and Janssen Research & Development.

Antiplatelet Treatment Patterns and Outcomes for Secondary Stroke Prevention in the United Kingdom.

INTRODUCTION: Stroke is a leading cause of death and disability worldwide. Antiplatelet therapies are recommended to reduce the risk of recurrent stroke in patients with ischemic stroke/transient ischemic attack (IS/TIA). This study evaluated outpatient antiplatelet treatment patterns and outcomes for secondary stroke prevention (SSP) among UK adults without atrial fibrillation who were hospitalized for IS/TIA. METHODS: This retrospective observational study utilized data from the UK Clinical Practice Research Datalink linked with Hospital Episode Statistics data (01/01/2011-30/06/2019). Treatment patterns included type and duration of treatments. Treatment outcomes included IS, myocardial infarction, major bleeding, and cardiovascular-related and all-cause mortality. Descriptive statistics were reported. RESULTS: Of 9270 patients, 13.9% (1292) might not receive antithrombotic therapy within 90 days of hospital discharge. Of 7978 patients who received antiplatelet therapies, most used clopidogrel (74.8%) or aspirin (16.7%) single antiplatelet therapy and clopidogrel + aspirin dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT, 5.9%). At 1-year post-hospitalization, 36.9, 43.3, and 35.1% of those receiving these treatments discontinued them, respectively, and of the patients initiating DAPT, 62.3% switched to single antiplatelet therapy. At 1-year post-discharge, the incidence rate (per 100 person-years) of IS, myocardial infarction, major bleeding, cardiovascular-related mortality, and all-cause mortality among the treated were 6.5, 0.7, 4.1, 5.0, and 7.3, respectively, and among the untreated were 14.9, 0.7, 8.6, 28.1, and 39.8, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: In the United Kingdom, 13.9% of patients hospitalized for stroke might not have any antiplatelet treatment to prevent secondary stroke; among the treated, clopidogrel, aspirin, and DAPT were commonly used. These study findings suggest that improved anti-thrombotic therapies for long-term SSP treatment are needed, which may lead to higher treatment and persistence rates and, therefore, improved outcomes in this population.

Post-ischemic ubiquitination at the postsynaptic density reversibly influences the activity of ischemia-relevant kinases.

Ubiquitin modifications alter protein function and stability, thereby regulating cell homeostasis and viability, particularly under stress. Ischemic stroke induces protein ubiquitination at the ischemic periphery, wherein cells remain viable, however the identity of ubiquitinated proteins is unknown. Here, we employed a proteomics approach to identify these proteins in mice undergoing ischemic stroke. The data are available in a searchable web interface ( https://hochrainerlab.shinyapps.io/StrokeUbiOmics/ ). We detected increased ubiquitination of 198 proteins, many of which localize to the postsynaptic density (PSD) of glutamatergic neurons. Among these were proteins essential for maintaining PSD architecture, such as PSD95, as well as NMDA and AMPA receptor subunits. The largest enzymatic group at the PSD with elevated post-ischemic ubiquitination were kinases, such as CaMKII, PKC, Cdk5, and Pyk2, whose aberrant activities are well-known to contribute to post-ischemic neuronal death. Concurrent phospho-proteomics revealed altered PSD-associated phosphorylation patterns, indicative of modified kinase activities following stroke. PSD-located CaMKII, PKC, and Cdk5 activities were decreased while Pyk2 activity was increased after stroke. Removal of ubiquitin restored kinase activities to pre-stroke levels, identifying ubiquitination as the responsible molecular mechanism for post-ischemic kinase regulation. These findings unveil a previously unrecognized role of ubiquitination in the regulation of essential kinases involved in ischemic injury.

Rationale and design of the AXIOMATIC-SSP phase II trial: Antithrombotic treatment with factor XIa inhibition to Optimize Management of Acute Thromboembolic events for Secondary Stroke Prevention.

BACKGROUND: Individuals with ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack (TIA) have a high early risk of ischemic stroke despite dual antiplatelet therapy. The risk of ischemic stroke, and associated disability, represents a significant unmet clinical need. Genetic variants resulting in reduced factor XI levels are associated with reduced risk for ischemic stroke but are not associated with increased intracranial bleeding. Milvexian is an oral small-molecule inhibitor of FXIa that binds activated factor XI with high affinity and selectivity and may reduce the risk of stroke when added to antiplatelet drugs without significant bleeding. We aimed to evaluate the dose-response relationship of milvexian in participants treated with dual antiplatelets. METHODS: We began a phase II, double-blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled trial at 367 sites in 2019. Participants (N = 2366) with ischemic stroke (National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale score ≤7) or high-risk TIA (ABCD2 score ≥6) were randomized to 1 of 5 doses of milvexian or placebo for 90 days. Participants also received clopidogrel 75 mg daily for the first 21 days and aspirin 100 mg for 90 days. The efficacy endpoint was the composite of ischemic stroke or incident infarct on magnetic resonance imaging. Major bleeding, defined as type 3 or 5 bleeding according to the Bleeding Academic Research Consortium, was the safety endpoint. Participant follow-up will end in 2022. CONCLUSION: The AXIOMATIC-SSP trial will evaluate the dose-response of milvexian for ischemic stroke occurrence in participants with ischemic stroke or TIA.

Cumulative growth and stress responses to the 2018-2019 drought in a European floodplain forest.

Droughts increasingly threaten the world's forests and their potential to mitigate climate change. In 2018-2019, Central European forests were hit by two consecutive hotter drought years, an unprecedented phenomenon that is likely to occur more frequently with climate change. Here, we examine tree growth and physiological stress responses (increase in carbon isotope composition; Δδ13 C) to this consecutive drought based on tree rings of dominant tree species in a Central European floodplain forest. Tree growth was not reduced for most species in 2018, indicating that water supply in floodplain forests can partly buffer meteorological water deficits. Drought stress responses in 2018 were comparable to former single drought years but the hotter drought in 2018 induced drought legacies in tree growth while former droughts did not. We observed strong decreases in tree growth and increases in Δδ13 C across all tree species in 2019, which are likely driven by the cumulative stress both consecutive hotter droughts exerted. Our results show that consecutive hotter droughts pose a novel threat to forests under climate change, even in forest ecosystems with comparably high levels of water supply.

Long-Term Treatment with Apixaban in Patients with Atrial Fibrillation: Outcomes during the Open-Label Extension following AVERROES.

BACKGROUND: AVERROES, a randomized controlled trial in high-risk patients with atrial fibrillation, unsuitable for vitamin K antagonist therapy, demonstrated efficacy and safety of apixaban compared with aspirin. At the conclusion of the double-blind phase, an open-label extension was initiated to allow study participants to receive apixaban until it became locally available. This study reports outcomes of patients on apixaban during the open-label extension. METHODS: Rates of stroke or systemic embolism, hemorrhagic stroke, major bleeding, and other outcomes during the open-label extension are reported. RESULTS: Of the 5,599 participants enrolled in AVERROES, 3,275 (58.5%) received apixaban during the open-label extension. Median (interquartile range) follow-up in the open-label extension was 3.0 (2.5-3.5) years. The rate of stroke or systemic embolism during the open-label extension was 1.0% per year, and the annual rates of hemorrhagic stroke and major bleeding were 0.3 and 1.2%, respectively. After adjustment for imbalances in patient variables, event rates in patients on apixaban during the open-label extension were similar to those of patients receiving apixaban during AVERROES. Additional analyses in all patients who received apixaban, at any time from the start of AVERROES to the end of the open-label extension, were performed. This cohort (n = 4,414) showed annual event rates of 1.1% for stroke or systemic embolism, 0.3% for hemorrhagic stroke, and 1.2% for major bleeding. CONCLUSION: During the open-label extension, annual rates of stroke or systemic embolism, hemorrhagic stroke, and major bleeding remained as low as those observed during apixaban treatment in AVERROES. These data support the long-term efficacy and safety of apixaban in patients with atrial fibrillation.

Prohibitin levels regulate OMA1 activity and turnover in neurons.

The GTPase OPA1 and the AAA-protease OMA1 serve well-established roles in mitochondrial stress responses and mitochondria-initiated cell death. In addition to its role in mitochondrial membrane fusion, cristae structure, and bioenergetic function, OPA1 controls apoptosis by sequestering cytochrome c (cyt c) in mitochondrial cristae. Cleavage of functional long OPA1 (L-OPA1) isoforms by OMA1 inactivates mitochondrial fusion and primes apoptosis. OPA1 cleavage is regulated by the prohibitin (PHB) complex, a heteromeric, ring-shaped mitochondrial inner membrane scaffolding complex composed of PHB1 and PHB2. In neurons, PHB plays a protective role against various stresses, and PHB deletion destabilizes OPA1 causing neurodegeneration. While deletion of OMA1 prevents OPA1 destabilization and attenuates neurodegeneration in PHB2 KO mice, how PHB levels regulate OMA1 is still unknown. Here, we investigate the effects of modulating neuronal PHB levels on OMA1 stability and OPA1 cleavage. We demonstrate that PHB promotes OMA1 turnover, effectively decreasing the pool of OMA1. Further, we show that OMA1 binds to cardiolipin (CL), a major mitochondrial phospholipid. CL binding promotes OMA1 turnover, as we show that deleting the CL-binding domain of OMA1 decreases its turnover rate. Since PHB is known to stabilize CL, these data suggest that PHB modulates OMA1 through CL. Furthermore, we show that PHB decreases cyt c release induced by tBID and attenuates caspase 9 activation in response to hypoxic stress in neurons. Taken together, our results suggest that PHB-mediated CL stabilization regulates stress responses and cell death through OMA1 turnover and cyt c release.

Prohibitin is a positive modulator of mitochondrial function in PC12 cells under oxidative stress.

Prohibitin (PHB) is a ubiquitously expressed and evolutionarily conserved mitochondrial protein with multiple functions. We have recently shown that PHB up-regulation offers robust protection against neuronal injury in models of cerebral ischemia in vitro and in vivo, but the mechanism by which PHB affords neuroprotection remains to be elucidated. Here, we manipulated PHB expression in PC12 neural cells to investigate its impact on mitochondrial function and the mechanisms whereby it protects cells exposed to oxidative stress. PHB over-expression promoted cell survival, whereas PHB down-regulation diminished cell viability. Functionally, manipulation of PHB levels did not affect basal mitochondrial respiration, but it increased spare respiratory capacity. Moreover, PHB over-expression preserved mitochondrial respiratory function of cells exposed to oxidative stress. Preserved respiratory capacity in differentiated PHB over-expressing cells exposed to oxidative stress was associated with an elongated mitochondrial morphology, whereas PHB down-regulation enhanced fragmentation. Mitochondrial complex I oxidative degradation was attenuated by PHB over-expression and increased in PHB knockdown cells. Changes in complex I degradation were associated with alterations of respiratory chain supercomplexes. Furthermore, we showed that PHB directly interacts with cardiolipin and that down-regulation of PHB results in loss of cardiolipin in mitochondria, which may contribute to destabilizing respiratory chain supercomplexes. Taken together, these data demonstrate that PHB modulates mitochondrial integrity and bioenergetics under oxidative stress, and suggest that the protective effect of PHB is mediated by stabilization of the mitochondrial respiratory machinery and its functional capacity, by the regulation of cardiolipin content. Open Data: Materials are available on https://cos.io/our-services/open-science-badges/ https://osf.io/93n6m/.

Critical Role of Flavin and Glutathione in Complex I-Mediated Bioenergetic Failure in Brain Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Ischemic brain injury is characterized by 2 temporally distinct but interrelated phases: ischemia (primary energy failure) and reperfusion (secondary energy failure). Loss of cerebral blood flow leads to decreased oxygen levels and energy crisis in the ischemic area, initiating a sequence of pathophysiological events that after reoxygenation lead to ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) brain damage. Mitochondrial impairment and oxidative stress are known to be early events in I/R injury. However, the biochemical mechanisms of mitochondria damage in I/R are not completely understood. METHODS: We used a mouse model of transient focal cerebral ischemia to investigate acute I/R-induced changes of mitochondrial function, focusing on mechanisms of primary and secondary energy failure. RESULTS: Ischemia induced a reversible loss of flavin mononucleotide from mitochondrial complex I leading to a transient decrease in its enzymatic activity, which is rapidly reversed on reoxygenation. Reestablishing blood flow led to a reversible oxidative modification of mitochondrial complex I thiol residues and inhibition of the enzyme. Administration of glutathione-ethyl ester at the onset of reperfusion prevented the decline of complex I activity and was associated with smaller infarct size and improved neurological outcome, suggesting that decreased oxidation of complex I thiols during I/R-induced oxidative stress may contribute to the neuroprotective effect of glutathione ester. CONCLUSIONS: Our results unveil a key role of mitochondrial complex I in the development of I/R brain injury and provide the mechanistic basis for the well-established mitochondrial dysfunction caused by I/R. Targeting the functional integrity of complex I in the early phase of reperfusion may provide a novel therapeutic strategy to prevent tissue injury after stroke.

Publisher Correction: Cerebral ischemia induces the aggregation of proteins linked to neurodegenerative diseases.

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Cerebral ischemia induces the aggregation of proteins linked to neurodegenerative diseases.

Protein aggregation critically affects cell viability in neurodegenerative diseases, but whether this also occurs in ischemic brain injury remains elusive. Prior studies report the post-ischemic aggregation of ubiquitin, small ubiquitin-related modifier (SUMO) and ribosomes, however whether other proteins are also affected is unknown. Here we employed a proteomic approach to identify the insoluble, aggregated proteome after cerebral ischemia. Mice underwent transient middle cerebral artery occlusion or sham-surgery. After 1-hour reperfusion, prior to apparent brain injury, mice were sacrificed and detergent-insoluble proteins were obtained and identified by nanoLC-MS/MS. Naturally existing insoluble proteins were determined in sham controls and aggregated proteins after cerebral ischemia/reperfusion were identified. Selected aggregated proteins found by proteomics were biochemically verified and aggregation propensities were studied during ischemia with or without reperfusion. We found that ischemia/reperfusion induces the aggregation of RNA-binding and heat-shock proteins, ubiquitin, SUMO and other proteins involved in cell signalling. RNA-binding proteins constitute the largest group of aggregating proteins in ischemia. These include TDP43, FUS, hnRNPA1, PSF/SFPQ and p54/NONO, all of which have been linked to neurodegeneration associated with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and frontotemporal dementia. The aggregation of neurodegeneration-related disease proteins in cerebral ischemia unveils a previously unappreciated molecular overlap between neurodegenerative diseases and ischemic stroke.

Neuronal expression of the mitochondrial protein prohibitin confers profound neuroprotection in a mouse model of focal cerebral ischemia.

The mitochondrial protein prohibitin (PHB) has emerged as an important modulator of neuronal survival in different injury modalities . We previously showed that viral gene transfer of PHB protects CA1 neurons from delayed neurodegeneration following transient forebrain ischemia through mitochondrial mechanisms. However, since PHB is present in all cell types, it is not known if its selective expression in neurons is protective, and if the protection occurs also in acute focal ischemic brain injury, the most common stroke type in humans. Therefore, we generated transgenic mice overexpressing human PHB1 specifically in neurons (PHB1 Tg). PHB1 Tg mice and littermate controls were subjected to transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAo). Infarct volume and sensory-motor impairment were assessed three days later. Under the control of a neuronal promoter (CaMKIIα), PHB1 expression was increased by 50% in the forebrain and hippocampus in PHB1 Tg mice. The brain injury produced by MCAo was reduced by 63 ± 11% in PHB1 Tg mice compared to littermate controls. This reduction was associated with improved sensory-motor performance, suggesting that the salvaged brain remains functional. Approaches to enhance PHB expression may be useful to ameliorate the devastating impact of cerebral ischemia on the brain.

Reverse electron transfer results in a loss of flavin from mitochondrial complex I: Potential mechanism for brain ischemia reperfusion injury.

Ischemic stroke is one of the most prevalent sources of disability in the world. The major brain tissue damage takes place upon the reperfusion of ischemic tissue. Energy failure due to alterations in mitochondrial metabolism and elevated production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is one of the main causes of brain ischemia-reperfusion (IR) damage. Ischemia resulted in the accumulation of succinate in tissues, which favors the process of reverse electron transfer (RET) when a fraction of electrons derived from succinate is directed to mitochondrial complex I for the reduction of matrix NAD+. We demonstrate that in intact brain mitochondria oxidizing succinate, complex I became damaged and was not able to contribute to the physiological respiration. This process is associated with a decline in ROS release and a dissociation of the enzyme's flavin. This previously undescribed phenomenon represents the major molecular mechanism of injury in stroke and induction of oxidative stress after reperfusion. We also demonstrate that the origin of ROS during RET is flavin of mitochondrial complex I. Our study highlights a novel target for neuroprotection against IR brain injury and provides a sensitive biochemical marker for this process.

Dispersal limitation drives successional pathways in Central Siberian forests under current and intensified fire regimes.

Fire is a primary driver of boreal forest dynamics. Intensifying fire regimes due to climate change may cause a shift in boreal forest composition toward reduced dominance of conifers and greater abundance of deciduous hardwoods, with potential biogeochemical and biophysical feedbacks to regional and global climate. This shift has already been observed in some North American boreal forests and has been attributed to changes in site conditions. However, it is unknown if the mechanisms controlling fire-induced changes in deciduous hardwood cover are similar among different boreal forests, which differ in the ecological traits of the dominant tree species. To better understand the consequences of intensifying fire regimes in boreal forests, we studied postfire regeneration in five burns in the Central Siberian dark taiga, a vast but poorly studied boreal region. We combined field measurements, dendrochronological analysis, and seed-source maps derived from high-resolution satellite images to quantify the importance of site conditions (e.g., organic layer depth) vs. seed availability in shaping postfire regeneration. We show that dispersal limitation of evergreen conifers was the main factor determining postfire regeneration composition and density. Site conditions had significant but weaker effects. We used information on postfire regeneration to develop a classification scheme for successional pathways, representing the dominance of deciduous hardwoods vs. evergreen conifers at different successional stages. We estimated the spatial distribution of different successional pathways under alternative fire regime scenarios. Under intensified fire regimes, dispersal limitation of evergreen conifers is predicted to become more severe, primarily due to reduced abundance of surviving seed sources within burned areas. Increased dispersal limitation of evergreen conifers, in turn, is predicted to increase the prevalence of successional pathways dominated by deciduous hardwoods. The likely fire-induced shift toward greater deciduous hardwood cover may affect climate-vegetation feedbacks via surface albedo, Bowen ratio, and carbon cycling.

Tree species traits but not diversity mitigate stem breakage in a subtropical forest following a rare and extreme ice storm.

Future climates are likely to include extreme events, which in turn have great impacts on ecological systems. In this study, we investigated possible effects that could mitigate stem breakage caused by a rare and extreme ice storm in a Chinese subtropical forest across a gradient of forest diversity. We used Bayesian modeling to correct stem breakage for tree size and variance components analysis to quantify the influence of taxon, leaf and wood functional traits, and stand level properties on the probability of stem breakage. We show that the taxon explained four times more variance in individual stem breakage than did stand level properties; trees with higher specific leaf area (SLA) were less susceptible to breakage. However, a large part of the variation at the taxon scale remained unexplained, implying that unmeasured or undefined traits could be used to predict damage caused by ice storms. When aggregated at the plot level, functional diversity and wood density increased after the ice storm. We suggest that for the adaption of forest management to climate change, much can still be learned from looking at functional traits at the taxon level.

Mitochondrial hexokinase II (HKII) and phosphoprotein enriched in astrocytes (PEA15) form a molecular switch governing cellular fate depending on the metabolic state.

The metabolic state of a cell is a key determinant in the decision to live and proliferate or to die. Consequently, balanced energy metabolism and the regulation of apoptosis are critical for the development and maintenance of differentiated organisms. Hypoxia occurs physiologically during development or exercise and pathologically in vascular disease, tumorigenesis, and inflammation, interfering with homeostatic metabolism. Here, we show that the hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1-regulated glycolytic enzyme hexokinase II (HKII) acts as a molecular switch that determines cellular fate by regulating both cytoprotection and induction of apoptosis based on the metabolic state. We provide evidence for a direct molecular interactor of HKII and show that, together with phosphoprotein enriched in astrocytes (PEA15), HKII inhibits apoptosis after hypoxia. In contrast, HKII accelerates apoptosis in the absence of PEA15 and under glucose deprivation. HKII both protects cells from death during hypoxia and functions as a sensor of glucose availability during normoxia, inducing apoptosis in response to glucose depletion. Thus, HKII-mediated apoptosis may represent an evolutionarily conserved altruistic mechanism to eliminate cells during metabolic stress to the advantage of a multicellular organism.

Dopaminergic projections from the VTA substantially contribute to the mesohabenular pathway in the rat.

Recent evidence suggests that the lateral habenular complex (LHb) is a source of negative reward signals in midbrain dopaminergic neurons. LHb activity, in turn, is modulated by locally released dopamine, which is largely derived from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) via the mesohabenular pathway. Unfortunately, the presumed importance of this modulation has not been appreciated so far, as its intensity had been largely underestimated in previous reports. Consequently, the present study used contemporary techniques to reexamine the origin of dopaminergic fibers to the LHb. For this purpose, the retrograde tract-tracer gold-coupled wheatgerm agglutinin was injected into the LHb of fourteen rats. Four of these animals providing the most representative information were selected for detailed analysis. In total, 343 retrogradely labeled neurons were detected in the VTAs of these animals. By far most of them were found in the anterior VTA, accumulating in its ventral paramedian fields. About 47% (162) of retrogradely labeled cells displayed tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactivity, suggesting that almost half of the mesohabenular neurons are dopaminergic. In addition, our data suggest that also incerto-hypothalamic and periventricular neurons contribute dopaminergic terminals to the LHb. The majority of LHb neurons, however, does not project to the origin of the mesohabenular pathway in the anterior VTA. Consequently, there might be no closed VTA-LHb-VTA loop. Instead, our data are in line with the idea that the anterior VTA via its projection to the medial part of the LHb may modulate the information flow from the limbic forebrain to monoaminergic midbrain nuclei.